Oat milk analogue versus traditional milk: Comprehensive evaluation of scientific evidence for processing techniques and health effects (2024)

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  The properties, composition, and structure of oat milk and traditional mile were compared.

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  The potential approaches for improving the quality of oat milk production were summarized.

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  The differences of oat milk and traditional milk on health, environmental protection, and consumer acceptance were analyzed.

Table 1

Comparison of physical properties of cow’s milk and oat milk.

4.1. Fermentation technology

Fermentation technology is a natural and economical food production technology that can enrich biologically active ingredients, enhance nutrition, and improve food quality and sensory properties (Zhu et al., 2020). Probiotic foods based on milk are common in the fermented food market, and probiotic foods account for approximately 70% of the total functional food market; however, these foods are high in saturated lipids and cause lactose intolerance, allergy to β-casein and cholesterol, etc. (Maekinen et al., 2016, Salmeron et al., 2015, Singhal et al., 2017). Nevertheless, limited attention has been given to plant-based foods. Previous studies have indicated that fermented foods based on legumes (such as soy milk) could produce fermented soy milk rich in B vitamins for the development of functional soy milk (Zhu et al., 2020). There have been few attempts to develop functional probiotics or nutrient-fortified foods using other plant-based fermentation substrates, such as cereals (Sharma et al., 2022b). Although cereals are rich in nutrients, compared to milk, they are less plentiful and high in nutrients. However, through fermentation, their nutritional value can be improved by enriching vitamins, minerals, and amino acids (Ray et al., 2016). Grains are prebiotics because they contain substances that promote the growth of probiotics, such as protein, dietary fiber, and lipids (Dong et al., 2017, Zhu et al., 2016). The ability to produce bacteriocins is an important feature of probiotic strains, such as lactic acid bacteria used in fermented oat drinks, a kind of safe, efficient, and nontoxic natural food preservative, during the fermentation process (Angelov et al., 2018, Messaoudi et al., 2013). At present, studies have been performed on oat fermented beverages. Nionelli et al. (2014) fermented oats with strains of Lactobacillus paracei, Lactobacillus casei, and Lactobacillus plantarum to obtain an oat fermented beverage (Nionelli et al., 2014). Previous studies have suggested that Lactobacillus plantarum strains can be used to obtain fermented oat beverages. The specific process was to heat the mixture of oats and water to 95°C, cool it to 37°C and then add the strain, which was found to increase the riboflavin content when fermentation was carried out for 16h at 37°C (Russo et al., 2016). Studies on germinated oat beverages fermented by Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus plantarum B28, and Streptococcus thermophilus concluded that probiotic strain fermentation did not affect β-glucan content and that fermentation combined the health benefits of oat dietary fiber β-glucan with probiotic culture (Angelov et al., 2006, Bernat et al., 2015a). In addition, due to the high protein content in oats, the digestibility of protein can be improved for better absorption and utilization (Karlund et al., 2020). Previous studies have shown that lysine and alanine contents in oat drinks could be increased by fermentation with Lactobacillus plantarum LP09 (Luana et al., 2014). The characteristics of metabolites in oat milk fermented in vitro after gastrointestinal digestion have also been reported. Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains were used to coferment oats, and after in vitro digestion and fermentation, the levels of phenolic compounds were significantly different. The content of avenanthramides in oats decreased after fermentation but increased after digestion, which indicated that the bioavailability of phenolic compounds could be improved by fermentation (Bocchi et al., 2021). Thus, the sensory and nutritional properties and bioavailability of the products can be improved by adding probiotics to oat beverages for fermentation while preserving the potential of the active ingredients as prebiotics.

4.2. Enzymatic production process of oat milk

The main component of oats, starch, has an important influence on the fluidity of the liquid, which becomes sticky during the hot processing of oat milk (). Enzymatic hydrolysis technology can generate more glucose and maltose by means of amylase, which not only prevents the formation of colloids with high viscosity but also improves the sweetness of oat milk. It has been reported that the optimal enzymatic hydrolysis conditions for preparing a compound oat drink were as follows: cellulase added with 40 U/g enzyme, enzymatic hydrolysis temperature of 65°C, and enzymatic hydrolysis time of 60min (Ying-Run et al., 2021). Previous studies have shown that 2.85kg oat milk could be obtained by mixing 2.7kg water into 1kg rolled oat milk, adding α-amylase to the resulting oat milk, and then filtering it after hydrolysis. The best conditions for preparing oat milk were as follows: the slurry concentration was 27.0% (w/w) and the enzyme concentration was 2.1% (w/w), liquefying for49min (Deswal et al., 2013). However, the solubility of proteins in oat milk has a high pH requirement and is soluble only under alkaline conditions (Brückner-Gühmann et al., 2019). After α-amylase–alkali treatment of oat milk, Babolanimogadam et al. (2023) discovered that compared with the untreated group, oat milk yield, and protein extraction increased significantly, especially the protein extraction rate, which was approximately 80% and 60%, respectively, and the protein concentration was significantly higher than that of other treatments (Babolanimogadam et al., 2023). Similarly, β-glucan, a dietary fiber rich in oats that exhibits an effect on the sensory properties of oat milk to some extent, increases the viscosity of oat milk, and β-glucan with high molecular weight (Mw) tends to form a semisolid (Lyly et al., 2003, Rosa-Sibakov et al., 2022). Therefore, it is necessary to depolymerize β-glucan by enzymes to generate a suspension of β-glucan with low viscosity and high concentration (Sibakov et al., 2013). It was found that more phenolic compounds were detected in urine after β-glucan was ingested with a low Mw (82kDa) compared to a high Mw (1000kDa) and a medium Mw (524kDa) (Hakkola et al., 2020). It has been demonstrated that the Mw of β-glucan could be significantly reduced from 2748kDa to 893kDa and 350kDa with the treatment of oat bran concentrates with β-glucanase, reducing the concentration of concentrate and improving the water holding capacity (Rosa-Sibakov et al., 2022). Therefore, the selection and technology of enzymes affect the taste, flavor, and nutritional properties of oat milk. Processing with enzyme preparation causes the originally rough oat particles to become smooth and delicate, and the release of smaller molecular flavor substances is more conducive to the sensory smoothness of oat milk, which is comparable to that of traditional milk.

4.3. Other quality improvement aspects

5.1. Nutrient composition

For thousands of years, people have regarded milk as an indispensable part of their diet, and it is still widely consumed worldwide. As a healthy and nutritious food, milk is a good source of protein and provides the main nutrients.

The nutrients in oat milk are derived from oats, which are rich in various bioactive substances and nutrients and are a healthy source of functional proteins, lipids, vitamins, dietary fiber, minerals, flavonoids, tocopherols and avenanthramides (Xinping et al., 2022, Yu et al., 2022). A comparison of cow's milk versus several commercially available oat milk in terms of total nutritional value is presented in Table 2. The nutritional composition differs between oat milk and milk. The β-glucan component contained in oats, which is a water-soluble dietary fiber and the most abundant in oats and barley, has become the focus of attention for oat milk (Sharma et al., 2022a). β-Glucan plays a significant role in lowering cholesterol, blood lipids, and blood sugar, mainly because it can delay gastric emptying and reduce food intake by increasing the viscosity of food (Singh et al., 2013, Truswell, 2002). In addition to soluble dietary fiber, Avns, a unique alkaloid in oats, exhibits anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-allergic, and antitumor biological activities, which can improve body function (Sang and Chu, 2017, Yu et al., 2022). Although oat milk is rich in a variety of nutrients and dietary fiber, it lacks certain amino acids, calcium, and vitamin A compared with milk, which is not suitable for children during their growth and development, so dairy products for children under 5years old cannot be completely replaced with oat milk (Sethi et al., 2016). Moreover, nutrients can be destroyed when oats undergo a series of processing treatments that result in the loss of vitamins and minerals, which can be fortified by adding nutrients. Compared with milk, oat milk as a cereal drink is higher in carbohydrates, and only 4.2% of oat milk contains added sugar (Escobar-Saez et al., 2022). Furthermore, compared to cow's milk, oat milk is lower in fat, which conforms to the expectations of plant-based milk. At the same time, oats are rich in lipids, the content of which ranges from 4.9% to 10.5%, and the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids is as high as 78–81.5%, among which the content of linoleic acid is 34.6 to 38.2% (Kourimska et al., 2018). The protein content of oat milk is lower than that in cow's milk, and the digestible indispensable amino acid scores (DIAAS) of oat and milk were 57 and 116, respectively. The limiting amino acid in oat was lysine, while milk contained no limiting amino acids (Ertl et al., 2016, Herreman et al., 2020). In addition, the addition of plant protein to commercial protein milk has been found to improve the protein content (Lu et al., 2019). More nutritional comparisons between commercially available oat milk and cow's milk are shown in Table 3. Taken together, the results indicate that oat milk contains some healthy ingredients that milk lacks, such as dietary fiber and alkaloids, but from the perspective of the overall nutritional composition, oat milk has shortcomings. Therefore, if we replace cow's milk with oat milk entirely, it is necessary to consider whether these nutrients are fortified or obtain these nutrients from other foods.

5.2. Bioavailability

Bioavailability refers to the rate at which an active compound is taken up by the target site of action as it is released from the food matrix (Carbonell-Capella et al., 2014). Because processing processes, such as boiling and thermal application, cause loss and destruction of plant milk nutrients, some nutrients in oat milk have lower bioavailability, such as calcium, vitamins, and minerals (Aydar et al., 2020). It is necessary to increase the bioavailability of minerals such as calcium in the body; common sugars, such as starch, sucrose, glucose, and maltose, do not require supplementation, while lactose does (Miller, 1989). In oat milk, the lower bioavailability of calcium is due to absorption by oxalate and phytase, and insoluble calcium phosphate will eventually form due to the higher phosphate content; therefore, when the calcium and phosphate ratio is 2:1 or 1:2, calcium can be normally absorbed by the body (Dubey and Patel, 2018). Casein stabilizes calcium phosphate, which in turn helps to enhance the absorption and delivery capacity of the intestine, maximizing bioavailability, whereas casein micelles form gels at pH<7, thus slowing digestion and enhancing satiety and nutrients in milk can be efficiently digested by the body (Lambers et al., 2013). In addition to calcium, the bioavailability of other minerals is also affected by phytic acid, which in oats reacts with iron and zinc cations to form complexes that affect absorption (Gibson et al., 2006, Sethi et al., 2016). Since phytic acid is present in oats, higher levels of the nutrient should be consumed to prevent effects on bioavailability.

5.3. Effects on disease prevention

Epidemiological evidence has shown that the risk of Parkinson's disease, a common disease among elderly individuals, is associated with the consumption of dairy products, possibly because galactose causes neuropathological changes, and drinking two glasses of milk a day may reach the risk dose ().

Compared to animal milk, oat milk exerts a positive effect on preventing cancer, cholesterol, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease due to its abundant functional active components (Paudel et al., 2021). In a study on the risk of chronic kidney disease and kidney stones due to the consumption of plant-based milk, oat milk was shown to have the lowest risk of kidney stones compared to almond and cashew milk and was superior to cow's milk (Borin et al., 2022). A daily intake of 0.75L of oat milk containing 3.8g of β-glucan for five weeks could reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels and serum total cholesterol, which may be a function of β-glucan (Önning et al., 1999). In another study on the effect of oat milk consumption on blood lipids and antioxidant capacity, after four weeks of consumption of 0.75–1L of oat milk per day, plasma cholesterol was significantly lower compared with milk and was inversely related to antioxidant capacity (Onning et al., 1998). The unsaturated fatty acids in oats also reduce blood lipid levels (Kourimska et al., 2018). In summary, all the studies illustrated that drinking oat milk has a preventative effect on some diseases.

6.1. Environmental effects

Regarding the environmental impact of animal milk and plant-based milk, environmentalists will choose plant-based milk without hesitation. A common adverse environmental impact caused by milk production is climate change. The environmental impact factors of milk production include water use land, demand, and greenhouse gas emissions (Naranjo et al., 2020). Greenhouse gas emissions account for 4% of total emissions, followed by meat products, accounting for 6% of acidification risk (Noya et al., 2018). Compared to milk, oat milk generates a much lower climate impact, with much lower direct greenhouse gas emissions (16–41%) but higher acidification potential (21–37%) (Röös et al., 2016). Under the background of “carbon peaking and carbon neutrality”, plant-based food is more low-carbon and environmentally friendly and effectively saves resources. Therefore, the idea of introducing a carbon emission tax as a strategy to respond to climate change is being discussed in many countries (Huang, 2022). Taken together, the results indicate that oat milk plays a more crucial role in promoting carbon neutrality and carbon peak than that of animal-based milk.

6.2. Constraints on land

Considering the global restrictions on land, it is critical to reduce the consumption of land resources. Maximizing the utilization rate of land and reducing the cost of land use are crucial factors when evaluating food sustainability (Garnett, 2009). Further studies showed that 26–54m² of land is only sufficient for 1kg of protein production of milk, compared with 4–25m² for plant protein, and comparing the protein delivery efficiency, the value of milk is 31g and that of oats is 359g (Nijdam et al., 2012, Smedman et al., 2010). From the limited literature, oat milk production requires less land compared to milk.

7.1. The option of vegetarianism

In the mid-20th century, the concept of vegetarianism became popular worldwide, aiming to contribute to environmental protection and animal welfare (Allès et al., 2017). Recent publications have reported that less than 10% of the population in Europe are vegetarians, and the number of vegetarians is increasing globally (Baroni et al., 2019). Oat milk is an excellent choice for vegetarians because of its plant-based ingredients; however, special attention should be focused on how nutrient supplementation affects children and adolescents (Escobar-Saez et al., 2022). In addition, milk restrictions are necessary for people who are intolerant to lactose or allergic to milk, which is among the reasons vegetarians choose oat milk.

7.2. Lactose intolerance

Although milk and dairy products provide the main nutrients in the diet, they can also cause adverse reactions in some people, including allergies and lactose intolerance (Jeske et al., 2018). Research from the US National Library of Medicine (2020) suggested that nearly 70% of the global population has a decreased ability to digest lactose, while in East Asia, people with lactose intolerance can digest up to 70–100% lactose (Aydar et al., 2020). According to statistics, a number of factors can cause lactose intolerance: (1) the most common type, primary hypolactasia, usually appears at approximately 5–7years of age and causes the greatest impact in adulthood; (2) a genetic disease, congenital lactase deficiency; and (3) developmental lactase deficiency, which is due to premature birth before lactase production (Jellema et al., 2010). In contrast, oat milk does not contain lactose, which can avoid symptoms such as diarrhea and flatulence, and the related population can consume oat milk instead of the adverse effects caused by animal milk.

7.3. Nutritional fortification of oat milk

In addition to health effects, the main factors people consider when choosing between cow's milk and plant-based milk are the content of nutrients. The main source of nutrition in the human body is mainly provided by milk, including calcium, protein, minerals, and vitamins A and B. Although some nutrients in oat milk are low in content or bioavailability, the milk can be fortified to improve the content. Recent publications about the design of the next generation of superfoods (foods with high levels of bioactive compounds and nutrients) suggested that activating secondary metabolites in plants through abiotic stress regulation exerted antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and other health benefits, which could also be applied to the nutritional fortification of oats (Sharma et al., 2022a, Sharma et al., 2022c). Calcium fortification has been used to prepare oat milk because oxalates and phytates in oats form complexes with calcium and do not ionize or dissolve, which affects calcium absorption (). Tricalcium phosphate and calcium carbonate are commonly used as fortifiers because their bioavailability is similar to that of calcium in milk, which is beneficial for human absorption because they can be dispersed throughout the product without causing the accumulation of anionic proteins in oat milk (Munekata et al., 2020). In addition, calcium bioavailability can also be fortified by the addition of probiotics because the production of short-chain fatty acids can improve calcium solubility (Aydar et al., 2020). For example, bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus can improve calcium bioavailability by hydrolyzing glycosidic bonds in the gut ().

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