geography_20240525133748 Flashcards by Hester Bowes-Smith (2024)

Geographical concept of place has which 3 aspects?

Location, Locale, Sense of Place

Location

where a place is on a map, its latitude or longitude coordinates

Locale

each place is made up of a series of locales or settings where everyday life activities take place, such as an office, a park, a home or a church. These settings affect social interactions and help forge values, attitudes and behaviour- we behave in a particular way in these places, according to social rules we understand. oGeographers agree that a locale need not be tied to a particular physical location , so a vehicle or an internet chat room may be a locale that structures interactions between people

John Agnew 1987 quote on locale

‘locale means not just the mere address but where of social life and environmental transformations’

Sense of Place

this refers to the subjective and emotional attachment people have to a place. This may be completely different when looked at from another’s perspective

Glastonbury example (e.g. could use for a 4 marker)

location: country of somerset, 23 miles south of Bristol, dry point on the low-lying somerset levels
locale: home to a number of visitors attractions including Glastonbury Abbey and Glastonbury Tor- young Christ visited
othe national trust describes Glastonbury Tor as being ‘a spiritual magnet for centuries, for both Pagans and Christians’
sense of place: a place of great spiritual importance for people interested in paganism, religious or the King Arthur link
oOthers: Glastonbury evokes emotions about the internationally famous music festival about the internationally famous music festival which takes place at Worthy farm in Pilton on the edge of Glastonbury
oFirst festival took place in June 1970, it was attend by 1500 people and cost £1 with free milk from the farm

Dorothy in the Wizard of Oz quote

‘There’s no place like home, there’s no place like home…’

Yi-Fu Tuan’s approach to place

Topophilia

A strong attachment to a place

Yi Fu Tuan 1974 quote

‘the human love of a place… diffuse as a concept, vivid, concrete as personal experience’

Topophobia

a dread or adverse reaction to a place

Ted Relph 1976

To be human is to live in a world that is filled with significant places’

Descriptive approach

This is the idea that the world is a set of places and each place can be studied and is distinct

A social constructionist approach

sees place as a product of a particular set of social processes occurring at a particular time.
For example, Trafalgar Square was built to commemorate a British naval victory in the 1800s and, using a social constructionist approach, could be understood as a place of empire and colonialism.

A phenomenological approach (Yi-Fu Tuan and Ted Relph)

interested in how an individual person experiences place, recognising a highly personal relationship between place and person

Ralph approach

Ralph argues that the degree of attachment, involvement and concern that a person or group has for a particular place is critical in our understanding of place.

Doreen Massey approach (Sense of place)

Places are dynamic, with multiple identities and no boundaries. They are constantly changed and moulded by the outside influences of the wider world.
E.g. The result of lived experience in a nation e.g. little Chalfont

Cultural approach - Jon Anderson

Places are given meaning by the traces that exist in them- physical traces such as
● Material traces are physical additions to the environment and include things such as buildings, signs and statues.
● Non-material traces include events, performances or emotions which occur in that place.
e.g. Glastonbury is given meaning by the Glastonbury music festival.

Example of concept of place/ changing places

Trafalgar Square, the traces are the statue of Lord Nelson and a large public square.- behind them social constructionists - commemorate Nelson’s naval victory - commemoration of British leadership and victory - can be understood as a space of Empire- a place of pride and patriotism. Today the square is still used to celebrate victory - e.g. Olympics. 4th plinth used to change place meanings - innovation and diversity. Also used for protests

Protests related to place

Example of changing place- 9/11 memorial , NY

-All places are changing, but few have gone through such dramatic changes in the last 15 years as Ground Zero, the site of the former world trade centre in NY
-Different views on memorial – some say is beautiful , others its cold, stark and uncomfortable

Person-Place relationship

people define themselves through a sense of place and by living in place and carrying our a range of everyday practice there

Lived experience has 3 aspects.

-Identity, Belonging, Well-being

Identity at different scale

Localism, Regionalism, Nationalism, Globalism. A person may think of their indentity as layers, that derive from distinct aspect of their family history, upbringing and experience

Localism

an affection for or emotional ownership of a particular place.

Examples

Regionalism

Nationalism

loyalty and devotion to a nation, which creates a sense of national consciousness. Patriotism could be considered as an example of a sense of place.

Examples- nationalism

At a national level many people identify with place through:
● a common language
● a national anthem
● a flag
● cultural and sporting events.
A resurgence in the Welsh language and culture has highlighted a stronger national identity among the Welsh in recent years.

Doreen Massey/Global sense of place/ Globalism

Examples/ globalisation dangers

Response to Globalisation

One particular response to globalisation has been a greater focus on ‘local’ place and the promotion of local goods and services.

Example- Totnes

Example- Bristol

Religious identity

Religion, too, can be used to foster a sense of identity in place
At a local level, churches, mosques and synagogues are places where people from the same religious identity come together to worship. There may also be larger sacred places such as Bethlehem or Mecca where people go on pilgrimages.

Examples of changing identities

Changes in the nature of places- be they social, enviro or economic- affect people and their identity
football fans after their national team losing a match
if a major employer or injury fails, those made redundant will miss the social interactions associated with the locale of the factory or office and must re-evaluate their role in society

Sahaviriya Steel 2015

announced the closure of Redcar Steelworks in NE England with a loss of 1700 job

What did Tata do in 2016?

Announced its intention to sell its entire UK business- this would result in the loss of a further 1200 jobs in the north east and 4000 at Port Talbot in South Wales

How did this change the indentites?

result in community members increased awareness of themselves as people living in a particular place

Activism as a result of identity

-Greater consciousness of and loyalty to a place (localism, regionalism, nationalism, patriotism, eve pro-Europeanism) may lead to some form of activism

Examples

2011, Tahrir Square in Cairo was the focal point of the Egyptian revolution against former president Hosni Mubarak. Despite the banning of public protests in Egypt, the square became a symbol for the pursuit of democracy in Egypt.

Belonging

The importance of belonging in placemaking/regeneration

Impact of globalisation on belonging (synoptic link)

The Transition Time Movement

places emphasises community involvement and has developed a clearer sense of belonging in places all over the world. Founded in 2007- in response to climate change and peak oil, now responds to globalisation (and dilution of place identity)-» over 1000 Transition initiatives worldwide

Wellbeing

Features which promote happiness and well-being in a place - depend on positionality

Manchester

In 2020, the Sunday Times deemed Altrincham in Greater Manchester as the best place to lived due to its revitalised town centre, schools and proximity to Dunham Massey - a National Trust property and park) and the tons initial response to the COVID 19 pandemic

Placemaking

Placemaking- The deliberate shaping of an environment to facilitate social interaction and improve a community’s quality of life

Important of place and human experience in place making

The placemaking movement, which has expanded rapidly in recent years, places great emphasis on all three aspects (identity, belonging and wellbeing)

Examples of placemaking

● The promotion of place is crucial in the marketing of holiday destinations.
● Food items are increasingly marketed in terms of the place from which they came, and the popularity of events may be linked to the reputation of the place at which they happen. The Glastonbury Music Festival would be an example here.
● People may ‘buy into’ or ‘consume’ place. For example, those who like the countryside tend to holiday in rural locations, enjoy books and television programmes about these areas, spend money on walking gear and maps and even furnish their houses in a rustic country style. Numerous products are marketed so that people can buy into the notion of the rural idyll.

Social and spatial exclusion

All places are shaped by people and understood by them in different ways
It follows that anybody whose behaviour varies from what is seen as normal may feel uncomfortable
The dominant groups, who have economic, social, and cultural power in a location or a society, may make such ‘wrongdoers’ feel out of place.

Example of people, activities and events can be seen as in place or out of place

Example 2- Women

Gender roles - ‘a women’s place is in the home’ - affected types of places women felt comfortable

Example 3 - Migrants

What are geographers interested in?

interested in finding out about groups in society that are excluded not spatially but also socially, politically, or economically and the reasons for this separation. – e.g. immigrants; local nationals, but feel separate from it).
oThere is a greater need to understand why people feel out of place due to the influx of immigrants from other countries

Tim Cresswell on insider and outside perspectives

argues that people, things and practices are strongly linked to particular places and when these links are broken, they are deemed to have committed something of a crime
- e.g. graffiti on historic buildings or litter in AOOB

Who may feel excluded?

Insider perspectives

Outsider perspective

Sense of being an insider or an outsider

The significance that an individual or group attaches to a particular place may be influenced by feelings of belonging or alienation, a sense of being an insider or an outsider.

Relph 1976 quote

‘To be inside a place is to belong to it and identify with it, and the more profoundly inside you are the stronger is the identity with the place’

Positionality

factors such as a person’s gender, race, ethnicity, religion, politics, socioeconomic status, and sexuality may affect their perception of place.

Example of positionality affecting perspectives on place

Mecca, Saudi Arabia
- to Muslims - the holiest of religious places
- to non -Muslims- viewed as a more historical and cultural place

People may feel excluded due to negative experiences that create negative perception and limited attachment or people may also have a sense of belonging and positive perception of a place because of positive experiences there- example

the expected behaviours and norms associated with expensive or exclusive hotels or restaurants may make people from disadvantaged background feel alienated (e.g. exclusionary rules like dress codes)
OR
for those familiar with the routines , rituals and traditions of a place they will feel welcomed and thoroughly in place

Example of insider/outside perspectives

Xenophobia and racism

People actively compare themselves with others who live in distant places , specifically those who they feel are different, alien or exotic
‘us’ and ‘them’
- whinging poms - Australian name for the English
-On the international stage, racist ideologies have been used to justify atrocities committed in wars and by colonial powers, including the British

Different approach to ‘us’ and ‘them’

The inspiration for the international Fairtrade movement has been to reduce inequalities between us and them, approaching growers and producers, wherever they are located, with greater respect

Doreen Massey quote (approach to the other)- use in a 20 marker

‘if history is about time, Geography is about space… space is the dimension of the simultaneous.. this means that space is the dimension that presents us with the existence of the other. Space presents us with the question of ‘how are we going to live together’ – MASSEY

Near and Far places

Friction of distance/ globalisation

If we use a faster method of travel or if we use the internet to maintain contact with people in distant places, perhaps this division of the world begins to break down – as the so called friction of distance is overcome

Levy 2014 quote

With the forces of globalisation, some geographers propose that space is reducing in importance and that ‘the Near is often an expanding domain’ – Levy 2014

Experienced places

Some places feel more familiar than others partly due to personal experience
Today people travel a lot. We have access to faster transport and have more leisure time
You may feel a deeper emotional attachment to a place that you have visited in person and felt you understood, than somewhere you heard about on the news
‘You had to be there’
- environmental stimuli (all sense)

Media

Media portrayal example - rural living

o- stereotyped as a happy, healthy and close-knit community with few problems of urban life – was idyllised
o- Doc Martin
o- Postman Pat
oReinforce the stereotypes with focusing on more nostalgic images of the countryside
oAdvertising companies hides a host of problems – which disadvantage low income household sin rural areas
Unemployment and underemployment
The scarce availability of affordable housing
The reduction in public transport services
Rural homelessness

Media portrayal example - city living

oCities are often stereotyped in a negative way – economic, social deprivation, homelessness, crime, vandalism and pollution
oHowever, successful regeneration of urban areas has made city living far more attractive in recent decades

Paris Syndrome

Media/Fiction books

Genius loci and planning

Character place

Character of place- the physical and human features that help to distinguish it from another place
Many aspects of local, regional, national and international geography influence character of place

Endogenous fatcors list

Endogenous: location, topography, physical geography, land use, built environment and infrastructure, demographic and economic characteristics.

endogenous

ourban or rural?
oProximity to other settlements
oMain roads
oPhysical features – rivers , coast

oHills or mountains, height, relief etc..
oPhysical geography
oRelief, altitude, aspect, drainage, soil and rock type (geology)
oExample – Aberdeen (Granit City) vs village of Abbotsbury ( limestone) in Dorset
oBoth areas use local stones to build houses – gives the built environment a particular colour and contributes to its character

oAgricultural area, urban, industrial?

oAge of type of housing – Georgian Edwardian, Victorina etc
oBuilding density
oBuilding materials – example
o‘Derbyshire is rugged. Dorset is quaint’
oDorset- thatched homes, Peak District – ‘robust and simple’ ‘plain’ housing

oMotorways or single track lanes
oRail connections
oDistance to airport

oPop size and structure – ageing or youthful pop, ethnicity?
oAge, employment status, education, home ownership – census data

oPrimary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary industries
oEmployment opportunities
oEducational attainment and opportunities
oIncome
oMobility of the population to work

Changing influences- endogenous to exogenous

exogenous

EXOGENOUS FACTORS – . are those that have an external cause or origin/ relationship with other places.

list of flows - exogenous

People, Resources, Money and Investment, Ideas

People

oFor example a village may supply workers to a nearby town or a town may be the source of day-trippers for a tourist destination
oMigration
UK became a multicultural society- problems- conflict, housing stress- changing character of the place
When in the EU, the UK welcomed immigrants from the other 27 member countries
Flows of people to the UK form the EU peaked at 1.5 million between 2004-2009
New cultures, food, music, ways of life-> change of character
Fish industries and farms benefitted from influx of chape labour
New shops on highstreets
Schools struggle to cope with number roc children with English as their second language
The pattern of migration in the UK (mostly into cities)
Also emigration – 2009 saw more national from the 8 central and eastern European state sleave the country than arrive – money department
Brexit
*Decline in immigrants will leave British industries previously dependant on the immigrant workforce having to pay more to attract British nationals – falling profits, jobs losses etc…, high prices- British exports less competitive and too pricey for Brits- failure of companies and more importing
oNew comers into a inner city- can led to gentrification- new character

flows of people to the UK peaked at X million between what years

1.5 million, 2004-2009

oOutsourcing resources- impacts mines in UK?

oDeindustrialization, unemployment, economic restructuring, urban decline of traditional industrial cities – manufacturing as more overseas (sh*t I investment)
omining, steel and shipbuilding towns- changing character due to deindustrialisation

Demographic characteristics of places shaped by flows

Demographic - age, gender, education, religion, birth rates, ethnicity, pop size
-People
oLocal
oglobal
-Money and Investment
oLocal
oNational
For example, the economic rise and fall of British industrial cities in the nineteenth and twentieth century and the impact this had on their population and environment.
oGlobal
British seaside resorts have also undergone significant change in the last sixty years as they have had to adapt to increasing numbers of British people travelling abroad for their holidays.
-Resources
oLocal
oGlobal
-Ideas
oLocal
oNational
The Government One Child Policy in China , implemented in 1980 and ended in 2016 to reduce growh rate
Incentives were offered to families ocmplyign with the policy- financia perks, greater employment options
Impact
*FR and BR decreased
*Natural increase declined
*400 million births prevented by the policy
*Overall sex ratio skewed toward males – preference of sons- more abortions for females , andoning or orphans
*Even after the one-child policy was rescinded, China’s birth and fertility rates remained low, leaving the country with a population that was aging too rapidly as well as a shrinking workforce.
*by 2050, older adults will account for more than one-third of the total population.
*
oGlobal

Socio-economic characteristics

Cultural characteristics

external forces - individuals - royal family

oRoyal family – King Charles
Poundbury, Dorset- more philanthropic
*Charles was patron as its on the dutchy of Cornwall land
*The foundation stone for this urban extension of 2500 dwelling to the west of Dorchester was laid by Charles in 1993
He is very outspoken on British architecture
*1984- new wing of national gallery – ‘monstrous carbuncle on the face of a much loved and elegant friend’
*National Theatre- ‘clever way of building a ncuealr power station in the middle of Lodnon without anyone objecting’
Principles
*Development must respect the land. They must not be intrusive, they should be designed to fit within the landscape they occupy
*Material also matter
*The pedestrian must be at the centre of the design process, streets must be reclaimed from the car

external forces- individual- aristocrats

Joseph Damer – owner of Milton Abbey
Brown (influential landscape architect) – style of open grassland
In the 1770s- Brown helped Jospeh to create a place for the residents of Milton town to move into – moved the WHOLE TOWN – ‘spoiled the view’
With an act of Parliament he moved the grammar school to Blandford
He convinced the community of Milton to leave - he closed d roads to disrupt trade to force people to leave, flooded a property
Then the buildings were demolished and the town was moved south eats to create the village of Milton Abbas
oThe examples of Milton Abbas and Poundbury demonstrate that individuals within the aristocracy have, historically, wielded considerable power in the place-making process and, to some extent , Britain’s royal family still dose

oCommunity or local groups may take an active role in managing and improving the perception of their place to attract investment and improve opportunities and services within the area.
oRegeneration and rebranding strategies have increasingly involved local people, since they have the ‘insider’ experience of place and will be the people most affected by any changes.
oResidents’ associations and heritage associations play an important role and social media is increasingly being employed to engage and involve local people in planning and place-making schemes

New Era Estate

oNew Era Estate
The growing investment in London property by transnational corporations, like Westbrook Partners, and wealthy foreign individuals is recognised as fuelling a dramatic rise in house prices
Rents rising- gentrification
Local groups have become a force for change in housing policy in London – protested, social media, celebrities to further their cause
*Protestors from the new era estate outside the offices of US investment company Westbrook Partners, which threatened to increase their rents in 2014

local and national gov

oNational Trust – retaining past connections in character
5.37 million members- more than pop of Costa Rica
oreinforces notion of permanence and longevity
oWhat may appear to be a permanent or unchanging feature of a place, may in fact be a land use created by the economic power of aristocracy – due to social processes not acceptable today

oInvestments of the WB in some slims areas- for example, Dkibouti Vile
oMajor Sporting events - these can transform communities and places, for example the East London 2012 Olympic Games had both positive and negative legacy effects, transforming one of the poorest districts of London but also forcing up rents and forcing out some of the poorest members of those communities.
oWorld Bank
In 2020, the World Bank was running 24 development projects in Haiti
Impact: Post-earthquake and hurricane reconstruction and reaction to COVID-19
oUN
Sustainable Development Goals
for example, the UN try to coordinate responses to disaster events such as post-earthquake reconstruction of both homes and communities, with a varied level of success around the world. This can have a direct impact on the character of places.

Conflict can arise when people resist changes forced upon their place

past and present processes -local scale

past and present processes- port sunlight

The examples look at changing places on a progressively larger scale.
They illustrate how the characteristics of places can be shaped by a very different range of factors, including people, resources, money and investment.
They also serve to show how past and present connections within and beyond localities can help shape places and the lives of the people who live there
Port Sunlight , The Wirral
-Shaped entirely by ideas of Wiliam Hesketh Lever
-Built as a garden village (‘garden city movement) from 1888 mon the western bank of the River Mersey
-He acuqeuired the site to build a new factory (shifting flows of money) for expanding his soap business with an adjing model village for his workers
-He championed the businedd model of ‘prosperoty sharing’ and instead of sharing the profits directly with his employees he provided them with high quality, sanitary, and spacious housing with social amntites and welfare prvosision in picturesque surroudnings
-Arts and carfts designed houses
-Community allotments
-Provided church, hospital, post office, fire statsion, schools, clubs, dinig halls and neo-clasical Lady Lever Art Gallery
-Present
oLever Brothers became Unilever ando ve the last 100 years has grown into a gkobal gaint prodcuign a huge range of goods – 95.52 billion value
-Past
oPort Sunlight chnaged very little
oNo longer primarily home of unilever emppyees, but great efforts are made ot maintain its original appearance and community feel
oIn 1966 almost 1,000 houses and most of the public buildings became Grade II listed and in 1978 the village was designated a Conservation Area.
oUnilever still has an interest in maintaining the character of Port Sunlight, and in 1999 they set up the Port Sunlight Village Trust (PSVT).
oWhilst Ellesmere Port and Liverpool, across the River Mersey, have experienced huge amounts of change from deindustrialisation to regeneration, the PSVT and the residents have gone to great efforts to maintain a self-sustaining village that is still true to the original ideals of William Lever

Devonport, Plymouth

Devonport , Plymouth
-In contrast to Port Sunlight it has chnaged ocnsiderdbly due to external forces
-Originally a naval dockyard due to its location on the deep water natural habour Plymouth sound
-By 18th century one of the fastes rowing tows in the oc*ntry
-However, in 1952, the Navy requisitioned the town cenre as as torgae enclave and enclosed it with a 3m high wall – the community was split in two and displaced residents were rehoused in flats illsuited for family living
-Naval josb then continued to delcien- socio economic prorblmes
-On the up?
oShifting money and investment
oFrom 2001–11, Devonport benefited from the New Deal for Communities initiative which provided funding to improve some of the most deprived areas of the UK.
oThe scheme specified place-related outcomes such as addressing crime, community and housing, and people-related outcomes such as education, health and employment.
oCommunity groups such as the Pembroke Street Estate Management Board were heavily involved.
oThe dividing naval wall was removed, inter-war housing and flats demolished, and historical landmarks incorporated into the redevelopment of the area
oThe regeneration has also tried to attract a wider range of people with options for private or shared ownership and the availability of social housing.
oThe construction of Georgian-inspired homes in the ‘Village by the sea’ development has attracted people from higher socio-economic groups to Devonport
oThere are still pockets of deprivation within Devonport, but both quantitative and qualitative data show that the New Deal programme and other redevelopment projects have significantly changed and improved the area, with benefits to local residents.
oA major redevelopment of Devonport’s docks was announced in 2020 to create 600 jobs and future-proof the economy by allowing it to refit the latest nuclear submarines.

Medellin, Columbia

Medellin, Columbia
-The city was associated with drugs and violence for a long time ‘most dangerous sicty in the world’
-The notorious drug lord Pablo Escobar wielded encomours power until he died in 1993
-Unemployment, crime, poverty widespread- social inequality
-BUT TODAY- Present connections
oHas become a model for urban regernation and sustianbel city planning through long term investment sin infrastructure \nd education
oCity panners reocngsied the need to make the city equally accesbile to all citizens
oIts long divided social classes are now more able to intrgetae in everyday eocnomci and educational acticies
-The city’s poorest, many of whom reside in shanty houses in the Aburra Valley, can now access the city’s booming economic centre courtesy of a series of outdoor escalators and a gondola system that carries people up and down the valley
-Additional innovations include:
-● a bus rapid transit system named Metroplus, with dedicated bus lanes
-● an extensive above-ground tram system
-● a city-wide ride-sharing program.
Emission-free transport has been promoted, and this has been helped by the EnCicla initiative, a free bike-sharing programme that offers an integrated alternative to the city’s public and mass transportation systems.
Education, social programmes and the public arts and culture budgets have all been increased to transform the lives of the most underprivileged residents in this city.
-There are still problems in Medellin. Poverty rates have fallen but inequality between rich and poor has increased and cultural and geographic barriers continue to limit social integration.
oCrime rates and gang violence remain high.
oHowever, change takes time and there is a great feeling of optimism within the city.

Meaning

Meaning – Meaning relates to individual or collective perceptions of place.

Representation

Representation – Representation is how a place is portrayed or ‘seen’ in society

Sense of place/ attachment to place

Perception of place

Perception of place – This is the way in which place is viewed or regarded by people. This can be influenced by media representation or personal experience.

oAdvertisem*nts or tourist agency material
oLocal exhibitions of art, film and photography
oPoetry
oSong
oExample
Dartmoor National Park is colosley linked with nature, weilderness in different artsitc and literay works- Arthur Conan Doyle- Houdn of the Bskivilles
oExperiences
oMedia= perceptions of international places tend to be influenced more by the media than personal and direct experiences
oHistorical and political relationships or trading links

Example- Belfast

Agents of change

These are the people who impact on a place whether through living, working or trying to improve that place. Examples would include residents, community groups, corporate entities, central and local government and the media.

oExample
Based in a derelict seafront lido and billed as a ‘bemusem*nt park’, Banksy’s Dismaland featured artworks on themes including the apocalypse, anti-consumerism and celebrity culture.
Unlike other British seaside resorts like Margate in Kent, which has built up a more positive representation following the opening of the Turner art gallery, WestonSuper-Mare relies on its beaches and traditional seaside attractions for visitors.
Banksy’s work brought significant benefits to a resort which has experienced significant decline in the last few decades. It is estimated that an additional 150,000 people visited the town as a result of the attraction and they added £20 million to the local economy. More importantly, local tourist chiefs were delighted that it helped to put the place of Weston Super-Mare more firmly on the map.


oKeen to attract trade and investment into their countries so a postive place perception is therefore important at an international level
People more likely to live or work in a place with a good reputuaiton an positive image
oMarketing or public rleations PR companies may be employed by national and local government ot improve or create postive perceptions of place
Aim to sell a place
Advertising cmagins, websites, social media, newsletters, logo, billboards .promotion of event

oInstitutions, business, non -proft enterprise, government agencies
oExample- Llandudo - New business like The Looking Glass ice cream Parlour created jobs (attracted investment) due to Alice in Wonderland place perception
oExample- Visit Britian- (non departmental public body funded by the Department for Digtial, Culture, Media and Sport)
2015 social media campign to give chinese name landmark across the country boosted torusit numbers
Visit Britain estimates that the campaign, on the Weibo and WeChat social media platform, reached nearly 300 million potential Chinese tourists
for every 22 additional Chinese visitors to Britain one additional UK job in tourism is created
oExample – airline and trian companies – artwork at statsion emerged ta the beginning of 20h century as companesi comissed posters , sometime sby famous artists, to sell the dleights of British coats and countryside and boost train passneegrs
o- CHANGING INDIVUDALs behaviour

oExample
oRebrand of Llandudno in North Wales as Alice Town
Were alice in wonderland was based
On the 60th anniversity of the birth of Alice Liddel (the girl it was based on), the Conwy County Council commissioned 4 large wooden sculptures of characters from the book
Alice town trail
o2012- Pembrokeshire coast National Park authority – vintage inspired designed at the cardiff airports, UK railways and across London underground to increase tourism , very successful in attracting more poel to the area

Community

How they try to influence or create specific place meanigs to shape the actiosn of and behaviours of indivudals, grousp, businesses and isnitutions

How successful ?

oProblems
Different stakeholders- pre-existing residents, local businesses, potential investors, local government and potential homeowners or visitors and it is a challenge to satisfy as many of these groups as possible
Resident-s want to portect and project their lcoa distinctiveness
Development agencies want to estbalsih a place bran base don government incentievs, avaibel tech and an areas international links
oSome schemes have actually driven out locals they ogrinally intended to help – gentrification

General examples - rebranding

Slough

oExample- Slough
Butt of jokes for years
Betjeman- ‘come friendly bombs and fall on Slough/It isn’t fit for humans now’
Jimmy Carr- ‘if you want to kwn what Slough was like int h 1970s go there now’
Ricky Gervais – needed a ‘middle earnign , middle aged and middle management’ set
Trevor Lambert- rebranding team- Betjeman has a lot to answer fo- he never actually came to Slouhh
‘Proud ot tbe Slugh’ logo
UK’s third msot producitv etown outside London
Has europe’s largest privalty owned insutrial

Studentification – established by Smith in 2002

Influence social and economic charteritsi , present meanings
-However, in many ways, studentification remains distinct from gentrification, as the former typically contributes to a long-term decline in the physical environment and tenurial transformation toward renting (Smith, 2005).
Social
-Less owner occupied family housing, more shared private-rented housing and in shrot term rented tenancies – Houses of Multiple Occupancy
-Bars and fast food outlets replace primary schools
-Street blight- porptiesl ie unkempt and desertes outside of term time
-Perception of studnt snes eof place
-High levels of burglary and crime
Economic
-Escalation of proptey prices
-Proliferation of to let boards
-Closure of public and private services between July and Septmenerb

Urbanisation

Suburbanisation

Counter urbanisation

Counter urbanisation
-More an dmore people choosing to live on the edge of urban areas with many going to the countryside
-Why?
oAble to commute
oOnline shopping
oSafe
oMore value fo money in housing
oLess congestion
oWork form home
-Social
oBetter housing
oFinally, socially it has both negative and positive effects because it could cause an increase in a community feel however with people buying the homes as holiday homes, some of the homes are empty for long periods during the year
-Economic
oEconomically it is strong for the local towns because they are receiving more people who will spend money at the local shops and also pay taxes
oThe industrial sector continue to delcien and there is a rise in the service sector
oSecond homes – uncoopried for majoirty of year- local businesses cannot compete

Gentrification – revival of an urban area that has been subject to enviro and socioeocnomci decline

Burgess Ubrna Land use Model

Quantitative data, including the use of geospatial data, must be used to investigate and present place characteristics

Stats-
-census – age, gender structure ethnicity, economic deprivation level
oproduced by the Office of National Statistics and stats are at national, regional and local levels
oevery 10 years
-IMD
oCriticism
Ranks and deciles are relative – they show that oen area is more deprived than another but not by how much
owhen interpreting maps the eyes drawn to last swaths of colour. This may be misleading as a geographically large local authority district may have a smaller population than a smaller geographical district
othe neighbourhood level indices provided description of areas but not of individuals with within those areas
othe indices identify aspects of deprivation, not affluence
the rich are aren’t mapped
-Criticisms
oThe use of quantifiable data such as statistics is not as objective as it may first appear. This is because people selectively choose the data they wish to use for their particular purpose. Their use therefore becomes subjective. Another criticism of using statistics when studying place is that they tell us very little about the human experience of a place and what it is like to live there

Geospatial

Qualitative

Location - GM

Physical geography

o2/3rds is ancient woodland – have the highest proportion of ancient woodland in the country
oin 2010, the Chiltern Conservation Board undertook assessment of the ecological value of local woodland- the report affirmed the importance of the area and argued that the impact of ‘fragmentation of habitats and colonies of flora and fauna’ that would come from HS2 should be evaluated as part of any environment impact assessment.
oThe hedgerows in the Chilterns function as corridors for wildlife, aiding the dispersal of species and are important habitats for bird nesting and feeding, there are around 4000 km of hedgerow in the AONB.

Built environment

Present- GM

Representation - GM

Demographic change
Past
-GM

Present

Overall Chiltern demographics

Cultural Change

Past
-High street gone from a busy travel oriented street -> quieter area with small independent artisan shops
Present
-Easter Bank holiday – GM Food Festival – attracts visitors – boots economy
-Last Sunday of every month – Roald Museums ‘scoff n’stroll’ a historic walk with tales of his books and surrounding are that inspire his stories
-45/50 shops independently owned
-Restaurants and coffee shops , beauticians most common – showing a high disposable income- non essential activities
-Minyulite cultural restarts surprisingly
oGreat Missenden New Akash Curry house chef voted best in bucks in 2022 in Eurasia awards
-Chiltern hills- walkers, cyclists, day trippers etc…
-Rolad Dahl -> Metidas , Café twist, musuem etc. (2016- 93 000 vistos post BFG film)
o‘Matilda day’ for new Matilda film
-Abbey

Lived experience

Strong sense of localism from insiders
-Protesting HS2 and conservation of 400 year old ancient woodland
-E.g. Dirty Mavis ‘oak tree lament (Stop HS2)’ – 2011
o‘this morning strangers came with axe and saw
-Protesting against hom*ogenisation and blandness of corporation shops
-Residents fight to save 200 yr old oak tree (Ilona- supports 25000 species ) at risk of being felled by HS2
oSupported by MP Saharah green
oThere were successful
o‘HS2 now revving their plans’
-‘save leather lane oaks’
oBeen able to retain >40% of trees on leather lane
-HS2 dominates the representation of GM
oConcerns over value of houses and impact on local businesses
oPeter Delow in 2011 stated that Philip Hammond - S of S for transport- thought that the Chilterns was ‘an inferior AON and could be trashed with impunity’
Young people forced to leave due to lack of money and high price houses – so elderly left as a dying breed
oRegeneration needed to appeal to a younger population
E.g. housing near the station – travel to London or work
Outsider perspectives
-Philip Hammond – S of S for transport
-‘but some oppose the line purely on aesthetic grounds…. Scar on landscape… despoiling AONB’
-‘have you looked ta the route?’
-‘between Great Missenden and HS2 are the A413 and the Chiltern railway and a lien of pylons so this is no some constable country

Agents of change

Individual
-Opposition from Dirty Massive and Peter Delo - though that Philip Hammond thought the Chilterns were an inferior AONB
Local community
-Community opposition to HS2
-Managed to save more than 40% of oak trees on leather lane
-Chiltern conservatism board and Chiltern district council declared opposition on grounds of enviro impact and how it would dissect the AONB
-Opposition to Tesco coming to the arwa- successful (but then coop came)
-Oppsotion to coasta- unsuccessful
Local gov/council
National
-First high speed rail In UK was HS1 – the channel tunnel
-2009- first proposal for HS2
oWhy?
oWould address capacity issues on Westcoast, reduce travel time to Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, Edinburgh
oBridge north/south economic divide – allow business people to reach key cities sin the north
-2010- announced HS2 would go through GM and Chilterns (less than a mile from the village)
-Boris Johnson said those who oppose HS2 are pretending to have environment objections when they are just NIMBY’s
-Work began in 2018
Global
-Concept of high speed rail has been expanding in Europe since 1980s
-In 2007, the first HS rails launched din China
Impact of HS2
-Traffic disruption
-Excavation
-Tree clearance
-Businesses and homeowners affected by falling property prices (Oct 2022 – fall of 33% over the last 12 months) , decline in business- e.g. Annie Bailey’s restaurant closed in 2013
Future? – falling prices may attract younger again and boost economy
‘how far do you gre with the view that local and regional powers and processes determine the rate of change in a place more thn national and international infleunce’?
-Local and regional power and processes are not as detrimental in determining rat eof change in a place, for example GM failures to stop HS3
-Instead, international and national influence hold this pwer as shown in the declien ad deprivation in Balckpool and the UK’s governemtns pwoower in caryoutng out HS2
-

Economic change

Past
-Reliant on travellers staying in the inns from 15th century to the 19th century
Present
-NOW: ‘a self-supporting, more or less closed world’ – ONE Hundred Years of Great Missenden- Valerie Eaton Griffith.

Quantitative

Quantitative
-stastical and cartographic sources far more useful
-e.g. land use surveys sho w geogrpahers hwo land use of GM has flcuatuated over years, indicating a change it character
-the highstreet used to lie on the route between Lodnon ad Milands in the 15th century
-this exogenous factor led to a change in ladn use with the higshtreet becoming home to 12 coachign inns in victroian times
-ladn use - introudciton o the railway in 1892- this land used combined with statsical data showed a trend of GM becming a commuter sttelemt as people travlle dinto Lodnon for work – change in character as money tat would be incvetse dinto the town – e.g. during lunch breaks- was now beign investe dint the city- perhaps damaging the economy and traffic congestion could have increased
-stast- chage of charcter due to changing emplpyemnt types
-stast- demograohcus give insight into the ageing structure – several pensioner services and a new project ‘the CLsiters tha is creating homes fin GM ‘exlsuively for over 60s’
-stats- hous e prices- avg £751000- 450 000 more than natonal avg
-10% least deprived
-This suggests GM is exlusleivy home to rich families
-And is posha dn affuelnt
-Alo shown by 45/50 of the highstreet ebign a indpednt – strong sense of localism
-The most common shops were restuarents and coffee shops and barbers/beauticans showing that lcoals have a high levek of disposable income which theys pend on nonessential actviies – boosts economy
-- downsides of census data etc…

Qualitative

Qualitative
-Artistic sources can give a good idea of charcter of GM ucrrnelty, but perhaps articis sources give a more vague picture of the changing character rof GM
-Twitterposts/pthogrpahy give a goo idea oftthe character rof GM
-Most posts with #great miseenden convey local oppsiton to HS2 which is just a mile from the village , alongside multiple pucture of protestrs cmapgingin against its contrsuion
oFor exmapel, many protested - e.g. swampy- in order to save many fot he 100 year old trees in GM
oThis charcte rof strong localism is also illustrate dby Dirty Mavis song called ‘oak tree lament’ with lyrice ‘this morning stranger scame with axe and saw’
-RICHMONDsausge advert filemd in GM and displayed as a ‘cholcate box’ British village
-This charcte rof beign a quientessial british village with rolling countryside was added to the Roald Dahl book made film ‘fantastic Mr Fox’
-These effectvley shown outsiders the experience of GM’s sense of place
-Both thtese artistic sources dipaly the carcte rof GM by highlights attitdes of locals0 however fial to effecvitley present how the attided and hcarter of GM has change dover time
-Better shown by statsical and cartographic sources – e.g. conversion of a coaching inn into the Roald Dahl museum – reflects change in place meaning from a place that epopel travel through to place people travel to – further relfcted Café Twit and Matlida’s coffeshops
-However, a mixture of sources is still needed to give a geographer the best estimate of a places charcter and locale
-Downsides of music.. in ore detail

Endogenous- BP

Endogenous
Location
-Located in the North West of England and on the Fylde Coast Peninsula, Blackpool covers an area of around 35km², with 11.2km (7miles) of seafront.
-27 miles of Liverpool and 40 miles NW of Manchester
Topography
Physical geography
-Climate - mixed weather , rainy (cannot compete with resorts elsewhere)
-Coastal
Land use
Built enviro
-Oversupply of HMOs which are unsuitable for families
->50% housing in inner areas is rented
infrastructure
-For a coastal town, Blackpool has good strategic transport links.
-1846- railway built - provided trade and long distance cheap travel for working classes

Demographic change - BP

social inequalties- BP

Inequalities within BP
-LE is 12.3 years lower for men and 10.1 yrs lower for women in the most deprived areas than the least
-Bloomfield
ohigh pop density -overcrowded
ohighest % of no qualification in BP-39%
oWard with the highest % of adults claiming unemployment benefits
o-In Bloomfield alone there is an off-licence for every 250 people, each trying to undercut the other. In the town centre, all-night drinking is legendary, with some clubs not closing their doors until 7am
oBloomfield is the unhealthiest district in England’s unhealthiest town, Blackpool. More than half of the local population smokes, the highest rate in the country. One in three pregnant women, even up to the point they go into hospital to give birth, are still smoking. Alcoholism is rife, while deaths from drug abuse rival those of the worst estates in London or Glasgow.

Cultural Change

Past
-Wealthy workers go on holiday to BP, spend income etc.., largely beach culture, but also music, and key places
-Became a place for stag and hen does
Now
-Culture coming back? B side of the seaside
Evidence of external agencies
-Individuals
oNorth pier- where sooty began by Harvy Corbet
o‘Oh blackpoll song’ by the Beautiful South
oFirst music festival held there in 1901- hosted Beatles and Rolling stones Music
oWinter gardens 1878- rolling stones, oasis, frank Sinatra have performed
oBlackpool Pleasure beech 1896 – home to the grand national roller coaster- constructed by American engineer Charles Paide in 1935- now one of 2 surviving wooden Mobius Loop roller coaster in the world
-Local council
oBlackpool illuminations 1879
oComedy carpet – one of the largest public art ever commissioned - The £2.6m Comedy Carpet was commissioned by Blackpool Council as part of the multi-million-pound regeneration of the seafront including vital sea-defence works.- Referring to the work of more than 1,000 comedians and comedy writers, the carpet gives visual form to jokes, songs and catchphrases dating from the early days of variety to the present
-National
oBlackpool Tower- 1894- were Strictly is
oBhaji on the Beach 1993- BP seen as a form of escapism from racial and sexist discrimination
Made by British film company
-TNCs
o2010- (present connections)
oMerlin Entertainment take son operations for Blackpool attractions including the Tower in partnership with the council
o2010- Blackpool tower eye opens
o2011- Blackpool Dungeon open
o2023- Gruffalo and Friends clubhouse opens (also has a Peter Rabbit attraction)
oMadame Tussauds
oBlackpool
oTower eye
oBlackpool Towe circus
oBlackpool tower ballroom
-Globa institution
oBlackpool piers are all in the World’s monuments watch list

economic

Meaning and representation

Now
-Insider perspective
o‘nothing ever gets fixed’,’ little opportunities for children’
-Outsider
o‘best avoided’, ‘overpriced’’ past its sell by date’
oSeen as place to go on holiday if you couldn’t afford better
o‘I think it is improving slowly’
oThere are 800 homeless in Blackpool this group may feel like outsiders due to their extreme poverty that limits them from taking in the fundamental cultural activities in Blackpool such as going to the pleasure beach – entry can be £40 +) and theme parks
oAlso only 3% ethnic monitories , compared to 88% who were born in the UK
Evidence of external forces
-Local
oBeside campaign – see the B side of the seaside – aim to change visitor perceptions and expectations of Blackpool and urging them to explore other areas not just the beach – explore arts, architecture, music, exhibitions
-4 years after unveiling £100 million improvements, a new plan called Destination Blackpool aims to tackle the ‘deep-rooted negative perceptions of the town’
-The resort wants to become a quality year-round place for families- like the Lakes- once it shrugs off its bawdy stag and hen party reputation
-National
oBBC- Strictly represented Blackpool Tower ballroom –
-Gov
oRegeneration
o-heritage quarter- reimaging but going back to positive past place meanings
o-The Grade II Listed former King Edward VII Picture House will be transformed into a new ‘Artisan Food Hall’, which spills out onto new outdoor space for ‘al fresco’ dining.
o-The locally listed King Edward VII pub will be refurbished into a new pub and hotel, creating a modern, family friendly environment offering quality food and beverages.
o-The King Edward VII apartment building will be renovated into a high-quality ‘Aparthotel’ keeping its original character.

Quantitative

Census
-Blackpool’s population has decreased since 1961 – 1530 00 to 141,100 in 2021- decrease in the popularity of the town and suggest increasing social problems have pushed people out
-Also shows deprivation
-2011- 9.2% of the population was unemployment and now in 2021- 6.2% unemployment (national UK average- 3.8%)- decrease in unemployment , perhaps showing how the £300 million rejuvenation is combating economic problems in Blackpool/ providing jobs
-(though census data can be fed lies and manipulation by the public , some may also not have filled it out and this can make a narrow set of results)
IMAD
-39/94 LSOAs are in 10% most deprived

shifts

Shift of people
-When it was going through the Butler’s tourist model, tourist numbers rose, stagnate and then decline
-When people started to leave/ go on holiday abroad, money left too , less revenue in tourism sector
-However 2010- Merlin Entertainment began investing in attractions
-Government invested in regeneration schemes
Shift of ideas
-Going abroad/ budget holiday, idea of self catering etc.. appealing – sunny European holidays
Essays
To what extent has the character of the place been affected by external agencies
-Budget airlines and companies that offer package holidays
oIntroduced cheap air travel in the 1960s and changed Blackpool’s character
oTourists now attracted to better climates
oLed to BP to stagnate and decline – 2000- 17 million to 11 million
Became a place of hen and stag does – attracting younger people who spent less – cases accommodation to be abandoned
-However, this external agency did not remove Blackpool deep seaside culture and the end factor that it is a coastal town . It is still one of the most visited seaside resorts in the UK

Qualitative

Media
o-Positive
oBhaji on the Beach 1994- BP seen as a form of escapism from racial and sexist discrimination
oStrictly
oCoronation street
oNegatively
o
-Music
o ‘h blackpoll song’
-Art
oComedy carpet – one of the largest public art ever commissioned

X% of earths water is oceanic

97.5%

X many himalyan glaciers

15 000 form unique reservoir which supports perennial rivers - lifelines to many S.Asian countries

canada has how mnay lakes?

2 million

groundwater is defined as water stored in subsurface geology in pore spaces no deeper than

4000m

water has been disocvered at depth X km underground where?

13km undergound at Kola Peninsual in Northern Russia -hot mineralised water found

new discovery of water between upper and lower mantle

residence times of water in various stores

groundwater shallow - 100-200 yrs
groundwater deep- 10 000 yrs
Lakes- 50-100 yrs
Glaciers- 20-100 yrs
Rivers- 2-6 months
Soil water -1 to 2 months
seasonal snow cover -2-6 months

scientists have found layers of ice X yrs old

400 000 yrs old

over the past X years, X of these glacial intergalcial cycles have occured

740 000 yrs, 8

at the peak of the last ice age how much land covered by glaciers and ice sheets

1/3

in glacial periods, sea levels have been Xm lower than today

120m

in interglacial periods, sea levels have been Xm higher than today

50m

. Studies show that
forests made up of needle-leaf trees captured
X per cent of the rainfall, while broad-leaf
deciduous forests intercepted Y per cent. This
difference may be due to the density of the
vegetation cover rather than the structure of the
leaves. Some tropical rainforests intercept as much
as Z per cent of the rainfall

. Studies show that
forests made up of needle-leaf trees captured
22 per cent of the rainfall, while broad-leaf
deciduous forests intercepted 19 per cent. This
difference may be due to the density of the
vegetation cover rather than the structure of the
leaves. Some tropical rainforests intercept as much
as 58 per cent of the rainfall

The pores in a
clay soil account for X to Y per cent of the volume.
In fine sand this can be X to Y per cent

The pores in a
clay soil account for 40 to 60 per cent of the volume.
In fine sand this can be 20 to 45 per cent

Flows within the global water cycle

There is a net transport of 40 units from ocean to
land with about the same amount returning by the
rivers to the ocean (Figure 1.16, page 14). However,
the amount of precipitation over the continents is
almost three times as high as the net transport,
indicating a considerable recirculation of water over
land. This recirculation has a marked annual cycle as
well as having large variations between continents.
The recirculation is larger during the summer and for
tropical land areas.
The hydrological cycle of the world’s oceans interacts
differently with that of the continents.
● Most of the water from the Pacific Ocean
recirculates between different parts of the
Pacific itself and there is little net transport
towards land.
● The pattern of water exchange between ocean
and land is different in the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans.
● Two-thirds of the total net transport of water
towards the continents comes from the Atlantic
Ocean, with the rest from the Indian Ocean.
● Most of the continental water for North and
South America, Europe and Africa emanates
from the Atlantic and is also returned to the
Atlantic by rivers.

water transfer in different rocks

limestone- 53cm per hr
sandstone- 200cm per hr
Unconsolidate dgavel - 20 000cm per hour

The UK has a dense gauging station network of around
…

The UK has a dense gauging station network of around
1,500 measuring stations supported by secondary
and temporary monitoring sites (Figure 1.21). Such
a large number is needed because the UK contains a
multiplicity of mostly small river basins and is diverse
in terms of its climate, topography, geology, land use
and patterns of water usage

river wye wales example

2016 Royal Horticulutre society

50% of London front gardens paved over - 36% increase over 10 years

example of floods in UK

X% of tropical storms related deaths do not occur at the coast

25%

A study by Ohio State University demonstrated

oA study by Ohio State University demonstrated that for every dollar spent on drainage the grower got back between $1.20 and $1.90 when growing corn and soybeans.

Dry topsoil subject to wind erosion

oDry topsoil subject to wind erosion – 0.1 to 2 tonnes/ha a year – arable fields in East Midlands and East Anglia

Studies have shown that there is little effect with less than
X per cent of a basin deforested but a large increase with
X to Y per cent of a basin deforested. These changes
occur at the local scale, but rivers of all sizes are affected
when deforestation is extensive

Studies have shown that there is little effect with less than
20 per cent of a basin deforested but a large increase with
50 to 100 per cent of a basin deforested. These changes
occur at the local scale, but rivers of all sizes are affected
when deforestation is extensive

Tropical South America

Tropical South America contains the world’s largest
continuous tropical forest and savanna ecosystems.
This region is environmentally important not only
because of traditional ecological measures, such as its
high biodiversity, but also because it generates more
than a quarter of the world’s river discharge. It has
undergone explosive development and deforestation in
the last 50 years as national and international demand
for cattle feed (mostly soy), beef and sugar cane for
ethanol has increased. Already over 10 per cent of the
rainforest in this large region has been converted to
cattle pasture and agriculture.

More examples of over abstraction

This saline intrusion is widespread along the
Mediterranean coastlines

oThe chalk acqufier of S England is replenished by rainfall on chalk hills of the north and southd owns and the CHiltenr s
oRecharge take splace in winter, when EVT is low and soil moitusre deicits are ngilible
oGrounwater varies seasonally – rises in authum through winter into spring
oIn summer, EVT exceeds rainfall , soil mosture deficit build up
oSummer - Leaves chalk via springs as weel as broeholes
oIf there are one or more dry winters when the effective rainfall available for recharge is low then these rivers can dry up altogether.
oChalk provides high quality groundwater for public supply
oIt has reduced flow in many chalk streams and ins ome cases drie dup sections – economic impact- inability to fish, enhour views—recreational acitvites

oChalk layer under London
o19th and 20th century – acqufiers exploited – increase industrialisaiton and development of grounwater se=ources
o1960s – peak asbtratcion – grounwater levels drooped by 88m below sea level – created a large depression in the eater table
oSince 1960s, industries have relocted or shut down – economic activity now sevric eindsytries and commerce rather than heavy indsyry – recovering of the groundwater by 2m a yea rin the early 1990s – graudla rebound of the water table
oRising grounwater – threat to Lodon Ungeround and its building foudnings
oCreated the GARDIT – Generla Acifier reserahc developlemt and investigation team – control wat levels

Summary of human impact son the Global hydrological cycle

What happened in the spring of 2014?

for the first time in human history, and probably the first time in the last 2.5 million years, atmospheric levels of CO2 exceeded 400ppm

What was the ppm before industrial revolution?

270ppm (and had been consistently been at that level for the last 10 000 years of warm climate since the end of the last ice age

how much more carbon i stored in the deep ocean than the atmosphere

60 times

deep ocean have already absorbed what % of excess atmospheric carbon our industrial activities have produced

25

Importance of carbon

make 10 million different carbon compounds on earth, found in all life forms, in sedimentary rocks, diamonds, graphite, coal, oil and gas

What is the carbon cycle?

it is the complex processes carbon undergoes as it is transformed from organic carbon to inorganic carbon and back again

Forms of Carbon

CO2 (atmosphere, soil, and oceans)
CH4 (‘’ ‘’ and sedimentary rocks)
Calcium carbonate (a solid compound found in calcareous rocks, oceans and in skeletons and shells of ocean creatures)
Hydrocarbons
Bio-molecules (proteins, carbohydrates etc.. DNA)

What is the primary source of CO2?

Earth’s interior/mantle

Journey of carbon

What is carbon measure in?

GtC- Gigatonnes of Carbon

What are the major stores of carbon?

lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere
biosphere, atmosphere.

Are stores evenly distributed across the world?

e.g. distribution of land and sea – profound impact on the carbon stores, such as oceans, soils and rocks
Fossil fuels are only found in certain parts of the world – where industrial production is concentrated and has high carbon emissions

Fluxes

The amount of carbon held in each store is subject to change over timescales ranging from a few minutes to millions of years.

What does the IPCC use to measure storage and transfer of global carbon

uses gigatonne of carbon equivalent (GtC) and gigatonne of carbon equivalent per year (GtCy-1)

What is the lithosphere?

includes the crust, and the uppermost mantle, this constitutes the hard and rigid outer layer of the Earth
Carbon is stored in both inorganic and organic forms

Examples of Organic forms in lithosphere and their size?

-litter, organic matter in soils (1500 GtC)
- peat (dead but undecayed organic matter in boggy areas) 250 GtC

Examples of inorganic carbon in the lithosphere and their size

What is the Hydrosphere?

Oceans/ water bodies- lakes, river etc…

What are the types of oceanic stores?

-surface layer- euphotic/epipelagic zone- where sunlight penetrates so that photosynthesis can take place, contains approx 900 GtC
-the intermediate (twilight zone/ mesopelagic) and the deep layer of water contains approx 37100 GtC
-Living organic matter amounts to approx 30 GtC and dissolved organic matter 700 GtC
- sedimentary layer(up to 100 million GtC)
-60x amount of carbon in ocean than atmoshphere
- deep ocean has already absorbed 25% of anthrogepnic emissions

How much carbon is in the oceans?

How are sedimentary rocks formed?

When organisms die, their dead cells, shells and other parts sink into deep water. Decay releases carbon dioxide into this deep water. Some material sinks right to the bottom, where it forms layers of carbon-rich sediments. Over millions of years, chemical and physical processes may turn these sediments into rocks

Atmosphere as a store of carbon history

Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have reached very high values in the deep past, possibly topping over 7,000 ppm (parts per million) in the Cambrian period around 500 million years ago. Its lowest concentration has probably been over the last two million years during the Quaternary glaciation when it sank to about 180 ppm.

% of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (changes since 1958-2020)

280 ppm to 317.7 ppm in March 1958 to 416.2 ppm as of May 2020 (0.04%)

What rate is atmospheric CO2 rising at?

It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating

When did daily average at Mauna Loa first exceed 400ppm?

10th May 2013

Why has it increased since glacial period?

due to human activities, CO2 in the atmosphere is higher than it has been for at least the last 800 000 years (if not past 20 million years)

Why is CO2 dangerous?

A potent greenhouse gas, regulates Earth’s temperature -> due to increasing industrial emission-> global warming

Who has measured atmospheric CO2 levels?

Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii (part of NOAA)- argues that the rise in CO2 due to anthropogenic sources (particularly fossils fuels, and deforestation)

Who was Keeling?

gathered evidence that linked fossil fuels emissions to rising levels of CO2, since been backed by others (e.g. through ice cores)

What is the Keeling curve?

(see picture on notes). Line graph showing atmospheric CO2 vs ppm

5 types of biosphere

Living vegetation (19%), Plant litter, Soil humus, Peat, Animals

Living vegetation

carbon stored directly in the tissues of the plants and root systems. Carbon in biomass varies between 35-65% of the dry weight- varies depending on location and vegetation type (more carbon in forests at high altitude (1/2) than low altitude (1/3rd)

What are the 2 largest forest reservoirs of carbon?

The vast expanses of boreal forest in Russia (25% of the world’s forest carbon), and Amazon Basin (20%)

What is plant litter? And what does it depend on?

defined as fresh, undecomposed, and easily recognisable (by species and type) plant debris. Type of litter depends on type of ecosystems
-leaf tissues account for 70% of litter in forests
-but wooddy litter increases with forest age, –in grasslands - very little above ground perennial tissue so the annual fall of litter is low.

What is soil humus?

Humus is a thick brown/black substance that remains after most of the organic litter has decomposed.
- it gets dispersed throughout the soil by soil organisms such as earthworms.

All forests (tropical, temperature and boreal) together there is approx X per cent of carbon in the biomass and X per cent in the soil.

31%, 69%

In tropical forest X percent carbon stored in biomass and X percent in soil

50%,50%

How much carbon do the world’s soil have?

2500 GtC (which is more than living vegetation and animals, and 3.1 times larger than the atmospheric pool of 800 GtC). Only Ocean has a larger carbon store.

Amount of carbon in living plants and animals?

560 GtC

Peat

Accumulation of partially decayed organic matter in an anaerobic marsh/wetland environment- almost permanent water saturation obstructs flows of oxygen into the ground. Anaerobic conditions slow down the rate of plant litter decomposition

Peatlands cover X km2 or X percent of land and freshwater surface of the plant

4 million, 3%

Where do they occur?

All continents, from tropical to boreal and Arctic zones and from sea level to high alpine conditions

How much GtC for peat stores?

250 GtC worldwide

Role of animals in carbon stores

these play a small role in the storage of carbon- but very important generation of movement of carbon through the carbon cycle

Global pattern of vegetation carbon storage

Some regions of the world (the Sahara Desert) have virtually no plant storage. Others have flourishing veg growth and production. Carbon uptake is increasing in the middle and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere, but less carbon is being absorbed in the tropics and southern hemisphere- a major cause of this decrease is thought to be drought - possibly linked to climate change-, impacting crop yields, timber production and expanses of natural vegetation.

What is net primary productivity?

the total biomass fixed in an ecosystem per unit area, per year. It is measured as a change in mass of carbon per unit area per year ( gC/m²/yr )
Though NPP could also be viewed as a carbon flux because it is the rate of carbon being fixed into the ecosystem
These patterns are based on the environment being controlled by purely natural climatic and ecological processes

Carbon fluxes-

amount of carbon exchanged between Earth’s carbon pools
-If more carbon enters a store than leaves it, that store is considered a net carbon sink.
-If more carbon leaves a store than enters it, that store is considered a net carbon source
The geological component of carbon cycle

Journey of carbon

Lithosere succession

Long term carbon cycle – thousands of years

Long term carbon cycle – thousands of years
-Atmosphere has co2 , combines with water vapour to make carbonic acid in rainfall, reacts with minerals in rock causes chemical weathering
-Some carbon released back to the atmosphere, but some move into the hydrosphere int o the ocean
-Oceans also absorb carbon directly from the atmosphere
-Once in the ocean, carbon goes into marine creatures, sink to the sea floor- create sedimentary rocks like limestone, heat and pressure converts sediment into fossil fuels
-SEQUESTRATION (liquid to solid of carbon)
-Earth is tectonically active – sea floor moves to destructive plate boundaries, where it is subducted , carbon in ricks is released and rushes back to the surface and returns via volcanic eruptions
-Relaes 200 million tonnes of CO2 back into the amtoshphere – completely the long cabron cycle

Short term carbon cycle

Moves 100 – 1000 x more carbon than other cycles and is much faster
-This is unique to earth – as it works through the biosphere
-Plants are primary producer organisms
-Energy from to sun to convert into carbohydrates
-Animals breakdown carbohydrates to release energy and carbon dioxide through respiration and methane as they digest their food
-Decomposition – carbon back into the oil in hummus
-Fire /combustion, releases carbon back into the atmosphere
-Processes, photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, combustion
-100 000 000 -> 100 000 000 000 metric tonnes of CO2 moves in the cycle
-Peat stops plants decomposing and a lot of co2 is in the peat – will peat keep storing carbon dioxide at a quicker rate than carbohydrates are broken down by decomposers

Photosynthesis

Respiration

Decomposition

Combustion

Burial and Compaction

Carbon sequestration in oceans and sediments

oCO2 captured at the source- e.g. power planet, and injected in liquid form into stores underground – deplete oil and gas reservoirs , uneconomic coal seams, deep salt formations, deep ocean
oThe ocean is very capable of absorbing much more additional carbon than terrestrial systems simply because of its sheer size. An advantage of ocean carbon sequestration is that the carbon sequestered is quite literally ‘sunk’ within weeks or months of being captured from the air/water. Once in the deep ocean it is in a circulation system commonly measured in thousands of years. By the time this carbon reaches the seabed it has entered the Earth’s geological cycle.

oInvolves using plants to capture CO2 from the atmosphere and then store it as carbon in stems and roots of plants as well as in the soil
oThe aim is to develop a set of land management practices that maximises the amount of carbon that remains stored in the soil and in plant material for the long term. Most authorities also believe that the enrichment of plant ecosystems is a positive environmental action with many associated benefits, including the enrichment of wildlife. There are disadvantages to terrestrial sequestration:
 For instance, a forest planted to capture carbon might lose that carbon back to the air in a catastrophic forest fire or if the forest suffers disease or infestation.
 Land-based sequestration plantations are slow growing and require active monitoring and management for the lifetime of the plantation, usually many decades.
 The carbon within those systems is never removed permanently from the atmospheric system

OCEAN CARBON PUMP

BIOLOGICAL CARBON PUMP/ sequestration

oLiving things in ocean move carbon from atmpshere into surface water than to deeper ocean and eventually into rocks – biological pump
oWhen organisms die, their dead cells, shells and other parts sink into deep water. Decay releases carbon dioxide into this deep water.
oSome material sinks right to the bottom, where it forms layers of carbon-rich sediments.
oOver millions of years, chemical and physical process turn them into rocks – locks up carbon for million so years

PUMP depends on

Weathering

Changes in the carbon cycle over time

x million years ago atmospheric CO2 was some y times higher than present values. It dropped, then rose again x million years ago to a maximum of X to Y times present levels. It then followed a slow decline until recent preindustrial time.

It is certain that 100 million years ago carbon dioxide values were many times higher than now though the exact value is in doubt. Five hundred million years ago atmospheric CO2 was some 20 times higher than present values. It dropped, then rose again 200 million years ago to a maximum of four to five times present levels. It then followed a slow decline until recent preindustrial time.

Natural Climate Change

oChemical weathering more active as cold water holds more OC2
oForest coverage reduced – colder- less photosystems and respiration
oDecomposers less effective, so carbon transfer to soils reduced
oLess water flowed into oceans as it is locked up as snow and ice – less sediment transfer along rivers and less buildup of sediments on ocean floor
oSoil would have been frozen- stopping transfers of carbon

oMelting of permafrost in tundra regions (e.g. Siberia, Russia)
oCarbon stored in permafrost now released into atmosphere – enhances greenhouse effect – increased warming (also methane)- positive feedback and further destabilization of the system

Variations in Solar Output

Milankovitch cycles

Causal Link between CO2 and temperature in explaining glacial cycles
-Time delay between temp change and change in CO2
-Long term trigger is Milankovitch Cycles
-Eccentricity
oIf the Earth’s orbit is more circular then the seasonal difference is not as great and this results in a cooler planet.
oElliptical orbit of the Earth creates more seasonal variations and this leads to climatic extremes of warming or cooling
-These regular cycles of orbital eccentricity cause slight variations in the amount of the sun’s radiation that warms up the Earth. So, as temperatures start to rise at the end of a glacial period (triggered by orbital change), there is a surge of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by the warming of the oceans and the unlocking of the land surface that had previously been frozen. This surge of carbon dioxide enhances the greenhouse effect, amplifying the warming trend. This is an excellent example of a positive feedback
-Precession and axil tilt
oThe greater the precession (wobble) and axial tilt the greater the climatic extreme of hot or cold

STUDY IN 2012 BY SHAKUN ET AL

DEBATE

Wildfires

Wildfires
-Each year , 4 million km 2 burned , releasing > 1 billion tonnes of CO2
-How?
oNatural – lightening
oHuman – arson
-Where?
oFires in boreal forests in Alaska, Canada, Russia, China and Scandinavia
oSavanna grasslands and forests – Africa, Brazil and northern Australia
otropical forests in Brazil, Indonesia, Colombia, Ivory Coast, Thailand, Laos, Nigeria, Philippines, Myanmar and Peru
otemperate forests in the US, western Europe and southern Australia
oagricultural waste after harvests in the US and western Europe.
-Fires and CO2
oTree dies after severe firs, setting a new stage for new growth to begin
oIf a forest fully replaces itself, no net carbon change
oFires emit 10-20% of a forests carbon into atmosphere. But the fires kills trees not consumers them so they decompose, emitting carbon, new trees grow (store carbon) and the organic layer of soil accumulates (stores carbon)
oBalance between new production and decomposition determines whether the forest is a net source or sink
Massive old growth northern latitude forests are considered a carbon sink because older trees hold more carbon and their heavy canopy blocks unlight from reaching the forest floor, slowing decomposition (and CO2 emissions)
-Anthropogenic - fires made worse by warming temperatures and changing precipitation levels – affect carbon balance
oExample fire – Indonesian wildfires 2013
Burned out of control for months
Smoke spread across parts of SE Asia, affecting millions
Releases large quantities of CO2
2015 air pollution crisis (SE Asian haze)- affected 28 million – widespread respiratory illness and some deaths
Started by illegal slash and burn practices – on Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan
oWildfires can turn forests from being a carbon sink to being a carbon source, as combustion returns huge quantities of carbon back into the atmosphere
Zombie fire – are so powerful that when winter comes (snow falls) they don’ t go out, as under Canadian forest there is so much organic fuel, that they continue to burn underground. Surface temperatures of -20 2m deep of snow, smoke come sup through the snow – blueish grey snow (zombie)

oExample fire – Indonesian wildfires 2013

Burned out of control for months
Smoke spread across parts of SE Asia, affecting millions
Releases large quantities of CO2
2015 air pollution crisis (SE Asian haze)- affected 28 million – widespread respiratory illness and some deaths
Started by illegal slash and burn practices – on Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan

Volcanic Activity

Human impact (including hydrocarbon fuel extraction and burning, farming practices, deforestation, land use changes).

Human impact (including hydrocarbon fuel extraction and burning, farming practices, deforestation, land use changes).
-IPPC- 90% of anthropogenic carbon release comes from combustion of fossil fuels – primarily coal
-Remaining 10% from land use change – deforestation, land drainage and agricultural practises
-Roughly half of the anthropogenic carbon is absorbed equally by oceans and vegetation and the remainder is absorbed by the atmosphere

Hydrocarbon fuel extraction and burning

Farming practices

oShambling Park Farm, Bury St Edmunds , Suffolk
645 ha farm, organic arable farm – specilaises in whaet , barley, oats etc.. and some grazinf sheep
Its carbon emissions 1150 tonnes – minaly from machinery and nitrous oxide from crop residneus and green manures
250 sheep -6.6% of emissions
40% of the carbon emission offset by cabron sequestration
-Values for sequestration in the soil do not appear but this is likely to be a significant carbon sink.
-In the future, the farm intends to raise the level of organic matter within the soils which will store even more carbon.
-An increase of just 0.1 per cent in soil organic matter over the entire farm could increase the sequestration of carbon to a level of about 4500 tonnes CO,, four times greater than the emissions!

Land use changes